The Pali Canon is the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhist tradition, as preserved in the Pali language.[1] The Canon was written down, transcribed from the oral tradition, during the Fourth Buddhist Council (in the usual Theravada numbering), 1st century BCE, in Sri Lanka[2] on ola (palm) leaves.[3] Passed down in writing and to other Theravadin countries, this originally largely North Indian[4] Canon is the most complete surviving early Buddhist canon and one of the first to be written down.[5]
The Canon was not printed until the nineteenth century, and is now also available in electronic form. [6]
The Pali Canon falls into three general categories, called pitaka (piṭaka, basket) in Pali. Because of this, the canon is traditionally known as the Tipitaka (Tipiṭaka; three baskets).The three pitakas are as follows. [7]
Vinaya Pitaka, dealing with rules for monks and nuns
Sutta Pitaka, discourses, mostly ascribed to the Buddha, but some to disciples
Abhidhamma Pitaka, variously described as philosophy, psychology, metaphysics etc.
Contents
[hide]
1 The Canon in the tradition
2 Origins
2.1 Attribution according to scholars
2.1.1 1. Certain parts can be attributed to the Buddha
2.1.2 2. Very little can be attributed to the Buddha
2.1.3 3. Attribution to Pre-sectarian Buddhism
2.1.4 4. Unknown nucleus
2.1.5 5. Only from much later are its contents definitely definable
2.2 The Earliest books of the Pali Canon
3 Texts and translations
4 Contents of the Canon
4.1 Vinaya Pitaka
4.2 Sutta Pitaka
4.2.1 Khuddaka Nikaya
4.2.1.1 Paracanonical or semicanonical works
4.3 Abhidhamma Pitaka
5 Comparison with other Buddhist canons
6 Notes
7 See also
8 External links
8.1 English translations
8.2 Other
9 Further reading
[edit] The Canon in the tradition
Theravada
Countries
Sri Lanka
Cambodia • Laos
Burma • Thailand
Texts
Pali Canon
Commentaries
Subcommentaries
History
Pre-sectarian Buddhism
Early schools • Sthavira
Asoka • Third Council
Vibhajjavada
Mahinda • Sanghamitta
Dipavamsa • Mahavamsa
Buddhaghosa
Doctrine
Saṃsāra • Nibbāṇa
Middle Way
Noble Eightfold Path
Four Noble Truths
Enlightenment Stages
Precepts • 3 Jewels
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The Canon is traditionally described by the Theravada as the Word of the Buddha (Buddhavacana), though this is obviously not intended in a literal sense, since it includes teachings by disciples.[8]
The traditional Theravadin (Mahaviharin) interpretation of the Pali Canon is given in a series of commentaries covering nearly the whole Canon, compiled by Buddhaghosa (fourth or fifth century CE) and later monks, mainly on the basis of earlier materials now lost. Subcommentaries have been written afterwards, commenting further on the Canon and its commentaries. The traditional Theravadin interpretation is summarized in Buddhaghosa's Visuddhimagga.[9]
An official view is given by a spokesman for the Buddha Sasana Council of Burma:[10] the Canon contains everything needed to show the path to nirvana; the commentaries and subcommentaries sometimes include much speculative matter, but are faithful to its teachings and often give very illuminating illustrations. In Sri Lanka and Thailand, "official" Buddhism has in large part adopted the interpretations of Western scholars.[11]
Although the Canon has existed in written form for two millennia, its earlier oral nature has not been forgotten in actual Buddhist practice within the tradition: memorization and recitation remain common. Among frequently recited texts are the Paritta. Even lay people usually know at least a few short texts by heart and recite them regularly; this is considered a form of meditation, at least if one understands the meaning. Monks are of course expected to know quite a bit more (see Dhammapada below for an example). A Burmese monk named Vicittasara even learnt the entire Canon by heart for the Sixth Council (again according to the usual Theravada numbering).[12] Recitation is in Pali as the ritual language.[13]
The relation of the scriptures to Buddhism as it actually exists among ordinary monks and lay people is, as with other major religious traditions, problematical: the evidence suggests that only parts of the Canon ever enjoyed wide currency, and that non-canonical works were sometimes very much more widely used; the details varied from place to place.[14] Dr Rupert Gethin says that the whole of Buddhist history may be regarded as a working out of the implications of the early scriptures.[15]
[edit] Origins
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It is traditionally believed by Theravadins that most of the Pali Canon originated from the Buddha and his immediate disciples. According to the scriptures, a council was held shortly after the Buddha's passing to collect and preserve his teachings. It was recited orally from the 5th century BC to the first century BC, when it was written down. The tradition holds that only a few later additions were made.
[edit] Attribution according to scholars
Various views concerning the attribution of the Pali Canon are current amongst scholars:
parts of it can be attributed to the Buddha.
very little can be attributed to the Buddha
parts can be attributed to the period of pre-sectarian Buddhism.
it has an unknown nucleus
not until the fifth to sixth centuries CE can we know anything definite about the contents of the Pali Canon.
[edit] 1. Certain parts can be attributed to the Buddha
Various scholars have voiced that some of the contents of the Pali Canon (and its main teachings) can be attributed to Gautama Buddha. Dr Richard Gombrich[16] thinks that the teachings (of the Vinaya and Sutta Pitakas) probably go back to the Buddha individually[17]. Some scholars argue that the teachings are coherent and cogent, and must be the work of a single genius, i.e. the Buddha himself, not a committee of followers after his death[18][19].
J.W. de Jong has stated that parts of the Pali Canon could very well have been proclaimed by the Buddha, and subsequently transmitted and developed by his disciples and, finally, codified in fixed formulas[20]. A. Wynne has said that the Pali Canon includes texts which go back to the very beginning of Buddhism, which perhaps include the substance of the Buddha’s teaching, and in some cases, maybe even his words[21].
A.K. Warder has stated that there is no evidence to suggest that the shared teaching of the early schools was formulated by anyone else than the Buddha and his immediate followers[22].
[edit] 2. Very little can be attributed to the Buddha
Some scholars say that little or nothing goes back to the Buddha[23] Some of these argue that[24]
some passages contradict the main teachings
the Buddha must have been consistent
therefore only one of the teachings can have been his
if he had taught the main teachings, contradictory teachings would never have got in
therefore he taught the divergent teachings, and the main teachings were elaborated by his followers after his death
[edit] 3. Attribution to Pre-sectarian Buddhism
Much of the Pali Canon is found also in the scriptures of other early schools of Buddhism, parts of whose versions are preserved, mainly in Chinese. Many scholars have argued that this shared material can be attributed to the period of Pre-sectarian Buddhism. This is the period before the early schools separated in about the fourth or third century BCE.
[edit] 4. Unknown nucleus
Some scholars see the Pali Canon as expanding and changing from an unknown nucleus[25]. Arguments given for an agnostic attitude include that the evidence for the Buddha's teachings dates from (long) after his death.
Some scholars have said that the application of text-critical methods derived from Biblical criticism is invalidated by the fact that the Bible was a written text while the Pali Canon was oral[26].
Some scholars have stated that it would be hypocritical to assert that nothing can be said about the doctrine of earliest Buddhism[27].
[edit] 5. Only from much later are its contents definitely definable
Dr Gregory Schopen[28], argues[29] that it is not until the fifth to sixth centuries CE that we can know anything definite about the contents of the Canon. This position did not attract much support, and was criticized by A. Wynne.[30]
[edit] The Earliest books of the Pali Canon
Different positions have been taken on what are the earliest books of the Canon. The majority of Western scholars consider the earliest identifiable stratum to be mainly prose works,[31] the Vinaya (excluding the Parivara[32]) and the first four nikayas of the Sutta Pitaka[33], and perhaps also some short verse works [34] such as the Suttanipata.[35]However, some scholars, paricularly in Japan, maintain that the Suttanipata is the earliest of all Buddhist scriptures, followed by the Itivuttaka and Udana.[36]. However, some of the developments in teachings may only reflect changes in teaching that the Buddha himself adopted, during the 45 years that the Buddha was teaching[37].
Most of the above scholars would probably agree that their early books include some later additions.[38] On the other hand, some scholars have claimed[39] that central aspects of late works are or may be much earlier.
According to the Sinhalese chronicles, the Pali Canon was written down in the reign of King Vattagamini (Vaṭṭagāmiṇi) (1st century B.C.E.) in Sri Lanka, at the Fourth Buddhist council. Most scholars hold that little if anything was added to the Canon after this,[40] though Schopen questions this.
[edit] Texts and translations
The climate of Theravada countries is not conducive to the survival of manuscripts. Apart from brief quotations in inscriptions and a two-page fragment from the eighth or ninth century found in Nepal, the oldest manuscripts known are from late in the fifteenth century,[41] and there is not very much from before the eighteenth.[42]
The first complete printed edition of the Canon was published in Burma in 1900, in 38 volumes.[43] The following editions of the Pali text of the Canon are readily available in the West.
Pali Text Society edition, 1877–1927 (a few volumes subsequently replaced by new editions), 57 volumes including indexes, individual volumes also available separately (website)
Thai edition, 1925–8, 45 volumes; more accurate than the PTS edition, but with fewer variant readings[44]; electronic transcript by budsir: Buddhist scriptures information retrieval, CD-ROM and online, both requiring payment; and, BUDSIR on Internet, free with login
Sixth Council edition, Rangoon, 1954–6, 40 volumes; more accurate than the Thai edition, but with fewer variant readings[45]; electronic transcript by Vipassana Research Institute available online in searchable database free of charge, or on CD-ROM (p&p only) from the Institute; another transcript of this edition, produced by the Dhamma Society Fund under the patronage of the Supreme Patriarch of Thailand, is expected online soon
Sinhalese (Buddha Jayanti) edition, 1957–?1993, 58 volumes including parallel Sinhalese translations, transcript in BudhgayaNews Pali Canon, searchable, free of charge (not yet fully proofread)
No one edition has all the best readings, and scholars must compare different editions.[46]
Translation: Pali Canon in English Translation, 1895- , in progress, 43 volumes so far, Pali Text Society, Bristol; for details of these and other translations of individual books see the separate articles. In 1994, the then President of the Pali Text Society stated that most of these translations were unsatisfactory.[47] Another former President said in 2003 that most of the translations were done very badly.[48] The style of many translations from the Canon has been criticized[49] as "Buddhist Hybrid English", a term invented by Paul Griffiths for translations from Sanskrit. He describes it as "deplorable", "comprehensible only to the initiate, written by and for Buddhologists".[50]
Selections: see List of Pali Canon anthologies.
[edit] Contents of the Canon
Pali Canon
Vinaya Pitaka
Sutta-
vibhanga Khandhaka Pari-
vara
Sutta Pitaka
Digha
Nikaya Majjhima
Nikaya Samyutta
Nikaya
Anguttara
Nikaya Khuddaka
Nikaya
Abhidhamma Pitaka
Dhs. Vbh. Dhk.
Pug. Kvu. Yamaka Patthana
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As noted above, the Canon consists of three pitakas.
Vinaya Pitaka (vinayapiṭaka)
Sutta Pitaka or Suttanta Pitaka
Abhidhamma Pitaka
Details are given below. For fuller information, see standard references on Pali literature.[51]
[edit] Vinaya Pitaka
The first category, the Vinaya Pitaka, is mostly concerned with the rules of the sangha, both monks and nuns. The rules are preceded by stories telling how the Buddha came to lay them down, and followed by explanations and analysis. According to the stories, the rules were devised on an ad hoc basis as the Buddha encountered various behavioral problems or disputes among his followers. This pitaka can be divided into three parts.
Suttavibhanga (-vibhaṅga) Commentary on the Patimokkha, a basic code of rules for monks and nuns that is not as such included in the Canon. The monks' rules are dealt with first, followed by those of the nuns' rules not already covered.
Khandhaka Other rules grouped by topic in 22 chapters.
Parivara (parivāra) Analysis of the rules from various points of view.
[edit] Sutta Pitaka
The second category is the Sutta Pitaka (literally "basket of threads", or of "the well spoken"; Sanskrit: Sutra Pitaka, following the former meaning) which consists primarily of accounts of the Buddha's teachings. The Sutta Pitaka has five subdivisions or nikayas.
Digha Nikaya (dīghanikāya) 34 long discourses.[52] Joy Manné argues[53] that this book was particularly intended to make converts, with its high proportion of debates and devotional material.
Majjhima Nikaya 152 medium-length discourses.[54] Manné argues[55] that this book was particularly intended to give a solid grounding in the teaching to converts, with a high proportion of sermons and consultations.
Samyutta Nikaya (saṃyutta-) Thousands of short discourses in fifty-odd groups by subject, person etc. Bhikkhu Bodhi, in his translation, says this nikaya has the most detailed explanations of doctrine.
Anguttara Nikaya (aṅguttara-) Thousands of short discourses arranged numerically from ones to elevens. It contains more elementary teaching for ordinary people than the preceding three.
Khuddaka Nikaya A miscellaneous collection of works in prose or verse. See below.
[edit] Khuddaka Nikaya
The contents of this nikaya vary somewhat between different editions of the Canon. The "standard" list, given in most western sources,[56] contains the following.
Khuddakapatha (-pāṭha) Nine short texts in prose or verse. This seems to have been intended as an introductory handbook for novices.[57] Most of its contents are found elsewhere in the Canon.
Dhammapada 423 verses ascribed by tradition to the Buddha in 26 chapters by topic. About half the Pali verses are found elsewhere in the canon. In the Sinhalese tradition, monks have been required to know this book by heart before they can be ordained.[58] In the Burmese examination system, this is one of the texts to be studied in the first stage of the syllabus.[59]
Udana (udāna) 80 short passages, mostly verse, ascribed to the Buddha, with introductory stories.
Itivuttaka 112 short prose teachings ascribed to the Buddha followed by verse paraphrases or complements. These are arranged numerically, from ones to fours.
Suttanipata(-nipāta) Poems, some in prose frameworks. In five parts, of which the first four contain 54 poems. The fifth part is a single poem in 16 sections, plus an introduction and a conclusion, which last includes a little prose.
Vimanavatthu (vimāna-) 85 poems telling of celestial mansions resulting from good karma.
Petavatthu 51 poems telling of the suffering of ghosts resulting from bad karma. It gives prominence to the idea that gifts to monks can benefit one's deceased relatives' ghosts.
Theragatha(-gāthā) 264 poems ascribed to early monks, arranged roughly by increasing number of verses.
Therigatha (therī-) 73 poems ascribed to early nuns, arranged by increasing number of verses.
Jataka (jātaka) 547 poems said to relate to the Buddha's previous lives,[60] arranged roughly by increasing number of verses. Professor Oskar von Hinüber[61] says only the last 50 were intended to be intelligible on their own without the Commentary. As a result of the arrangement, these make up the greater part of the book.[62] according to A. K. Warder,[63] this is the most popular book of the Canon.
Niddesa Commentary on parts of Suttanipata:[64] the last two parts and one other sutta. Traditionally ascribed to the Buddha's disciple Sariputta.
Patisambhidamagga (paṭisambhidā-) 30 treatises on various topics. Traditionally ascribed to Sariputta. Gethin[65] says this book presents the awakening experience as having many different dimensions and aspects, related to the whole of the teaching, and yet as a simple, coherent whole.
Apadana (apadāna) About 600 poems, most telling how their authors performed a meritorious act in a distant past life, resulting in favourable rebirths and eventual nirvana. There are 589 in the Pali Text Society's edition, 603 in the Sixth Council edition and 592 in a number of others.[66]
Buddhavamsa (-vaṃsa) Short verse book, mainly telling of the previous 24 Buddhas and the current Buddha's meritorious acts towards them in his previous lives.
Cariyapitaka (cariyā-) 35 poems telling of Gotama Buddha's practice of 7 of the perfections in his previous lives.
However, some editions contain in addition some works that have been described by western scholars as paracanonical or semicanonical.
[edit] Paracanonical or semicanonical works
The following works are included in the Sixth Council edition of the Canon,[67] including the new transcript from Thailand.[68]
Nettipakarana (nettipakaraṇa, nettippakaraṇa or just netti) This book presents methods of interpretation. The colophon ascribes it to the Buddha's disciple Kaccana.
Petakopadesa (peṭakopadesa) Presents the same methods as the preceding book. They have a large amount of overlap. The text of this book is very corrupt. The colophon ascribes it to the Buddha's disciple Kaccana.
Milindapanha (-pañha or -pañhā) A dialogue between King Menander of Bactria (second century B.C.E.) and the monk Nagasena. Rhys Davids describes this as the greatest work of classical Indian prose literature.
The first two of these, but not the third, are included in the Sinhalese (printed) edition. All are omitted from the Thai edition. Inclusion in printed editions is not the same as canonicity (cf. Apocrypha). Professor George Bond of Northwestern University says of the first of these books that some Theravadins regard it as quasi-canonical, others as canonical, especially in Burma.[69] About 1800, the head of the Burmese sangha regarded at least the first two of these books as canonical.[70] On the other hand, at least one recent Burmese teacher has not.[71]
Ancient style of scripture used for the Pali Canon
[edit] Abhidhamma Pitaka
The third category, the Abhidhamma Pitaka (literally "beyond the dhamma", "higher dhamma" or "special dhamma", Sanskrit: Abhidharma Pitaka), is a collection of texts which give a systematic philosophical description of the nature of mind, matter and time. There are seven books in the Abhidhamma Pitaka.
Dhammasangani (-saṅgaṇi or -saṅgaṇī) Enumeration, definition and classification of dhammas
Vibhanga (vibhaṅga) Analysis of 18 topics by various methods, including those of the Dhammasangani
Dhatukatha (dhātukathā) Deals with interrelations between ideas from the previous two books
Puggalapannatti (-paññatti) Explanations of types of person, arranged numerically in lists from ones to tens
Kathavatthu (kathā-) Over 200 debates on points of doctrine
Yamaka Applies to 10 topics a procedure involving converse questions (e.g. Is X Y? Is Y X?)
Patthana (paṭṭhāna) Analysis of 24 types of condition[72]
The traditional position is that the Abhidhamma is the absolute teaching, while the suttas are adapted to the hearer. Most scholars describe the abhidhamma as an attempt to systematize the teachings of the suttas: Harvey,[73] Gethin.[74] Cousins says that where the suttas think in terms of sequences or processes the abhidhamma thinks in terms of specific events or occasions.[75]
[edit] Comparison with other Buddhist canons
The other two main canons in use at the present day are the Tibetan Kangyur and the Chinese Buddhist Canon. The former is in about a hundred volumes and includes versions of the Vinaya Pitaka and the Dhammapada (the latter confusingly called Udanavarga) and of parts of some other books. The standard modern edition of the latter is the Taisho published in Japan, which is in a hundred much larger volumes. It includes both canonical and non-canonical (including Chinese and Japanese) literature and its arrangement does not clearly distinguish the two. It includes versions of the Vinaya Pitaka, the first four nikayas, the Dhammapada, the Itivuttaka and the Milindapanha and of parts of some other books. These Chinese and Tibetan versions are not usually translations of the Pali and differ from it to varying extents, but are recognizably the "same" works. On the other hand, the Chinese abhidharma books are different works from the Pali Abhidhamma Pitaka, though they follow a common methodology.
Looking at things from the other side, the bulk of the Chinese and Tibetan canons consists of Mahayana sutras and tantras, which, apart from a few tantras,[76] have no equivalent in the Pali Canon.
[edit] Notes
^ Gombrich, Theravada Buddhism, 2nd edn, Routledge, London, 2006, page 3
^ Encyclopedia of Religion, Macmillan, New York, sv Councils, Buddhist
^ A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, 3rd edn, page 307. American Asiatic Association, Asia Society, Asia: Journal of the American Asiatic Association, p724.
^ If the language of the Pāli canon is north Indian in origin, and without substantial Sinhalese additions, it is likely that the canon was composed somewhere in north India before its introduction to Sri Lanka How old is the Sutta Pitaka?, Alexander Wynne, St. Johns' College, 2003
^ Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, Cambridge University Press, 1990, page 3.
^ Bechert & Gombrich, The World of Buddhism, Thames & Hudson, 1984, page 293
^ Gombrich, page 4
^ Gombrich, page 20
^ Gombrich, pages 153-4
^ Morgan, Path of the Buddha, Ronald Press, New York, 1956, pages v, 71
^ Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, volume 28 (part 2), page 302
^ Mendelson, Sangha and State in Burma, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, 1975, page 266
^ Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, 2nd edn, volume 9, Elsevier, Amsterdam/Oxford, 2006
^ Journal of the Pali Text Society, volume XV, pages 103f
^ Gethin, Foundations of Buddhism, Oxford University Press, 1998, page 43
^ Academic Director of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies, former Boden Professor of Sanskrit at the University of Oxford and former President of the Pali Text Society
^ I am saying that there was a person called the Buddha, that the preachings probably go back to him individually... that we can learn more about what he meant, and that he was saying some very precise things. source: http://www.ordinarymind.net/Interviews/interview_jan2003.htm
^ Gombrich, Theravada Buddhism, 2nd edn, Routledge, London, 2006, pages 20f
^ While parts of the Pali Canon clearly originated after the time of the Buddha, much must derive from his teaching. - An introduction to Buddhism, Peter Harvey, 1990, p.3
^ the basic ideas of Buddhism found in the canonical writings could very well have been proclaimed by him [the Buddha], transmitted and developed by his disciples and, finally, codified in fixed formulas. J.W. De Jong, 1993: The Beginnings of Buddhism, in The Eastern Buddhist, vol. 26, no. 2, p. 25
^ If some of the material is so old, it might be possible to establish what texts go back to the very beginning of Buddhism, texts which perhaps include the substance of the Buddha’s teaching, and in some cases, maybe even his words, How old is the Suttapitaka? Alexander Wynne, St John’s College, 2003. [www.ocbs.org/research/Wynne.pdf]
^ there is no evidence to suggest that it was formulated by anyone else than the Buddha and his immediate followers. AK Warder, Indian Buddhism, 1999, 3rd edition, inside flap.
^ Skorupski, Buddhist Forum, volume I, Heritage, Delhi/SOAS, London,1990, page 5
^ see Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, vol 21, part 1, page 11 for some of this
^ an article in the Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004), page 10
^ Buddhist Studies in Honour of Hammalawa Saddhatissa ed Dhammapala, Gombrich & Norman, University of Jayawardenepura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka, 1984, pages 56, 67
^ It would be hypocritical to assert that nothing can be said about the doctrine of earliest Buddhism ... the basic ideas of Buddhism found in the canonical writings could very well have been proclaimed by him [the Buddha], transmitted and developed by his disciples and, finally, codified in fixed formulas. J.W. De Jong, 1993: The Beginnings of Buddhism, in The Eastern Buddhist, vol. 26, no. 2, p. 25
^ Professor of Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Buddhist Studies at the University of Texas at Austin
^ Bones, Stones, and Buddhist Monks, University of Hawai'i Press, 1997, page 24 (reprinted from Studien zur Indologie und Iranistik, volume 10 (1985))
^ How old is the Sutta Pitaka? - Alexander Wynne, St John’s College, 2003. [www.ocbs.org/research/Wynne.pdf]
^ A. K. Warder, Introduction to Pali, 1963, Pali Text Society, page viii
^ L. S. Cousins in Buddhist Studies in Honour of Hammalava Saddhatissa, ed Dhammapala, Gombrich and Norman, University of Jayewardenepura, 1984, page 56
^ The World of Buddhism, ed Bechert and Gombrich, Thames and Hudson, London, 1984, page 78; Gethin, pages 42f
^ Gethin, The Buddha's Path to Awakening, E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1992
^ Cousins, loc. cit.
^ Nakamura, Indian Buddhism, Japan, 1980, reissued by Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1987, 1989, page 27
^ as the Buddha taught for 45 years, some signs of development in teachings may only reflect changes during this period. - An introduction to Buddhism, Peter Harvey, 1990, p.3
^ Bechert and Gombrich; Warder, Introduction to Path of Discrimination, 1982, Pali Text Society, page xxix
^ Cousins, "Pali oral literature", in Buddhist Studies, ed Denwood and Piatigorski, Curzon Press, London, 1982/3; Harvey, page 83; Gethin, page 48; The Guide, Pali Text Society, page xxvii
^ Harvey, page 3; Warder, Path of Discrimination, Pali Text Society, pages xxxixf; Gethin, Path, page 8
^ Hinüber, Handbook of Pali Literature, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, 1996, page 5.
^ Pali Text Society Home Page
^ Günter Grönbold, Der buddhistische Kanon: eine Bibliographie, Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, 1984, page 12; as noted there and elsewhere, the 1893 Siamese edition was incomplete
^ Warder, Introduction to Pali, 1963, PTS, page 382
^ Hamm in German Scholars on India, volume I, ed Cultural Department of the German Embassy in India, pub Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, Varanasi, 1973, translated from Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft, 1962
^ Cone, Dictionary of Pali, volume I, PTS, 2001
^ Memoirs of the Chuo Academic Research Institute, No. 23, Dec. 1994, page 12, reprinted in Norman, Collected Papers, volume VI, 1996, Pali Text Society, Bristol, page 80
^ Interview with professor Richard Gombrich for Ordinary Mind - An Australian Buddhist Review issue No 21
^ Journal of the Pali Text Society, Volume XXIX, page 102
^ Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, 4.2 (1981)
^ Norman, Pali Literature, Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, 1983; Hinüber,op. cit.
^ Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, appendix
^ Journal of the Pali Text Society, volume XV
^ Harvey, appendix
^ loc. cit.
^ Pali Text Society; Norman; Hinüber; Harvey, Appendix; Lamotte, History of Indian Buddhism, 1958, English tr, Oriental Institute, Catholic University of Louvain, 1988
^ Norman, page 58
^ Dhammapada, ed Sumangala, pub Humphrey Milford for the Pali Text Society, London, 1914, page v
^ Mendelson, appendix
^ Harvey, appendix
^ op. cit.
^ This can be verified by inspecting the table of contents of the VRI transcription.
^ Introduction to Pali, 1963,PaliText Society, Bristol, page 383
^ Harvey, appendix
^ Path, pages 311f
^ JPTS, volume XX, pages 1-42
^ The Guide, Pali Text Society, 1962, page xii; Hinüber
^ ([1]).
^ Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, ed Potter, volume VII, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1996
^ JPTS, volume XXVIII, pages 61f
^ Rewata Dhamma, The Buddha and His Disciples, Dhamma-Talaka Pubns, Birmingham, 2001, page 89
^ Harvey, page 83
^ loc. cit.
^ Foundations, page 44
^ "Pali oral literature", page 7
^ Most notably, a version of the Atanatiya Sutta (from the Digha Nikaya) is included in the tantra (Mikkyo, rgyud) divisions of the Taisho and of the Cone, Derge, Lhasa, Lithang, Narthang and Peking (Qianlong) editions of the Kangyur: Skilling, Mahasutras, volume I, Parts I & II, 1997, Pali Text Society, Bristol, pages 84n, 553ff, 617ff.
[edit] See also
History of Literature
Bronze Age literature:
Sumerian
Egyptian
Assyro-Babylonian
Classical literatures:
Chinese
Greek
Latin
Pahlavi
Pali
Sanskrit
Syriac
Tamil
Medieval literature
Anglo-Saxon
Arabic
Byzantine
French
German
Hebrew
Indian
Irish
Italian
Japanese
Kannada
Nepal Bhasa
Norse
Persian
Welsh
Early Modern literature
Renaissance literature
Baroque literature
Modern literature
18th century
19th century
20th century
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This box: view • talk • edit
Buddhist texts
Tripitaka
Pali Literature
Tripitaka Koreana
[edit] External links
What-Buddha-Said.net What Buddha said in plain English. Translations & Explanations.
The Three Baskets as in the Buddhist Encyclopedia
Guide to Tipitaka– Online transcript of a book by Professor U Ko Lay giving a detailed account of the contents of the Burmese edition of the Canon.
Tipitakadhara Sayadaws of Burma
Sayadaw U Vicittasara Mingun Sayadaw: A Fabulous Memory
[edit] English translations
Access to Insight has many suttas translated into English
Ida B. Wells Memorial Sutra Library
Most of the Pali Canon in Pali, and much in Sinhala and English of Metta.lk (Sri Lanka)
Tipitaka Online of Nibbana.com (Myanmar)
Search in English translations of the Tipitaka
[edit] Other
Hundreds of free buddhist talks and huge forum.
The Pali Text Society
Tipitaka Network
Online Pali-English Dictionary
The Pali Tipitaka Project
[edit] Further reading
In addition to Ko Lay's book above, two other books are devoted to detailed accounts of the Canon:
History of Pali Literature, B. C. Law, volume I
Analysis of the Pali Canon, Russell Webb, Buddist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka
